On the Classification and Reporting of Prolonged Grief: Assessment and Research Guidelines.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES AFTER PARTICIPATING IN THIS CME ACTIVITY, THE PSYCHIATRIST SHOULD BE BETTER ABLE TO: • Explain the steps required for diagnosis of mental disorders in diagnostic handbooks.• Identify current procedures for classifying and reporting prolonged grief disorder. ABSTRACT: Prolonged grief disorder (PGD) was added to the 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases in 2018 and to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in its 2022 text revision. Thus, reporting and classifying PGD according to established guidelines has become fundamental for scientific research and clinical practice. Yet, PGD assessment instruments and criteria are still being developed and debated. The purpose of this article is to examine the adequacy of current procedures for classifying and reporting PGD in research and to suggest guidelines for future investigation and dissemination of knowledge. We outline the standard steps required for diagnosis and assessment of a mental disorder (notably, the administration of clinical interviews). In order to illustrate reporting about the presence/prevalence of PGD in recent scientific articles, we conducted a search of Scopus that identified 22 relevant articles published between 2019 and 2023. Our review of the literature shows that standard classification procedures are not (yet) followed. Prevalences of PGD are based on self-reported symptomatology, with rates derived from percentages of bereaved persons reaching a certain cutoff score on a questionnaire, without clinical interviewing. This likely results in systematic overestimation of prevalences. Nevertheless, the actual establishment of PGD prevalence was often stated in titles, abstracts, and results sections of articles. Further, the need for structured clinical interviews for diagnostic classification was frequently mentioned only among limitations in discussion sections-but was not highlighted. We conclude by providing guidelines for researching and reporting self-reported prolonged grief symptoms and the presence/prevalence of PGD.

Restoration-oriented stressors of bereavement.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The Dual Process Model of Coping with Bereavement holds that bereaved people who respond flexibly to loss-oriented stressors (i.e., relating to the loss; to the deceased person) and restoration-oriented stressors (i.e., secondary to loss; daily-life changes, taking on new roles) adapt better to bereavement. Despite growing interest in the Dual Process Model, systematic analyses of the prevalence, characteristics, and correlates of restoration-oriented stressors are lacking. Therefore, we aimed to chart restoration-oriented stressors and their relationship with post-loss adaptation. DESIGN AND METHODS: A community sample of 181 bereaved adults (63% women) completed the 20-item expert-construed Restoration-Oriented Stressors Inventory (ROSI) and questionnaires assessing background characteristics, worry, and prolonged grief and depression symptoms. RESULTS: Main findings were that younger people, and those who lost a parent, partner, or child (vs. other relationship) experienced more restoration-oriented stressors and appraised these as more stressful. Stressors' perceived stressfulness, but not their quantity, related positively to worry. Perceived stressfulness predicted prolonged grief and depression symptoms beyond background characteristics, worry, and the number of stressors. CONCLUSION: Restoration-oriented stressors and their appraisal vary and relate to coping and post-loss mental health. Future research should clarify temporal interrelations between stressors, coping mechanisms, and outcomes.

A systematic review of loneliness in bereavement: Current research and future directions.

Bereaved people suffer from loneliness and loneliness is associated with poor mental health. In this study, this topic is reviewed. An agenda is suggested for future research. Research that is theory-driven, addresses measurement consistency, correlates of loneliness in bereaved and non-bereaved, and treatment is necessary for prevention and intervention.

Upward and Downward Counterfactual Thought After Loss: A Multiwave Controlled Longitudinal Study.

Counterfactual thoughts, mental simulations about how a situation may have turned out differently (i.e., "if only …, then …"), can reduce mental health after stressful life-events. However, how specific counterfactual thought types relate to post-loss mental health problems is unclear. We hypothesized that self-referenced upward counterfactuals (i.e., "If only I had done …, then the current situation would be better") may serve as cognitive avoidance, thereby perpetuating loss-related distress. Conversely, downward counterfactuals (i.e., "If … had happened, then the current situation could have been [even] worse") may facilitate benefit finding, thereby reducing distress. In a longitudinal survey, self-referent, other-referent, and nonreferent upward counterfactuals, and nonreferent downward counterfactuals were assessed at baseline. Prolonged grief and depression symptoms were assessed at baseline, and 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Multiple regression analyses assessed associations between counterfactual thoughts and symptom levels in 65 recently bereaved people who generated counterfactual thoughts about the loss-event. Moderator analyses assessed the unicity of significant effects in the previous step, by comparing these effects in 59 people generating loss-related counterfactuals with those in 59 propensity-score matched participants generating counterfactuals about other negative life-events. Multivariate analyses showed that nonreferent upward counterfactuals were uniquely strongly positively associated with prolonged grief and depression symptoms concurrently. Self-referent upward counterfactuals were uniquely positively associated with prolonged grief and depression symptoms longitudinally. Moderator analyses confirmed that thinking about how one's (in)actions could prevent a death uniquely exacerbated prolonged grief and depression severity. Prolonged grief treatment may be improved by targeting self-blame and guilt.

Emotion Regulatory Strategies in Complicated Grief: A Systematic Review.

Prolonged grief disorder, characterized by severe, persistent, and disabling grief, has recently been included in the International Classification of Diseases-11 (ICD-11). Emotional disturbances are central to such complicated grief responses. Accordingly, emotion regulation is assumed critical in the development, persistence, and treatment of complicated grief. Yet, a comprehensive review on this topic is lacking. We conducted a systematic review (PROSPERO: CRD42017076061) searching PsycInfo, Web of Science, and PubMed to identify quantitative research examining relationships between emotion regulation and complicated grief. Sixty-four studies on 7,715 bereaved people were identified, focusing on a variety of emotion regulation strategies (i.e., experiential avoidance, behavioral avoidance, expressive suppression, rumination, worry, problem solving, cognitive reappraisal, positive thought, and mindfulness). Our synthesis showed strong evidence that experiential avoidance and rumination play a role in the persistence of complicated grief. More generally, surveys support positive associations between putative maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and complicated grief, and negative associations between putative adaptive emotion regulation strategies and complicated grief. Laboratory research yielded mixed results. Emotion regulation is critical in complicated grief, and in particular experiential avoidance and rumination form important targets in complicated grief treatments. We advise expanding current knowledge, by employing more advanced, intensive data collection methods and experiments across diverse samples. Increasing knowledge in this domain will improve clinical practice.

Bereavement or breakup: Differences in networks of depression.

BACKGROUND: Prior network analyses demonstrated that the death of a loved one potentially precedes specific depression symptoms, primarily loneliness, which in turn links to other depressive symptoms. In this study, we extend prior research by comparing depression symptom network structures following two types of marital disruption: bereavement versus separation. METHODS: We fitted two Gaussian Graphical Models to cross-sectional data from a Swiss survey of older persons (145 bereaved, 217 separated, and 362 married controls), and compared symptom levels across bereaved and separated individuals. RESULTS: Separated compared to widowed individuals were more likely to perceive an unfriendly environment and oneself as a failure. Both types of marital disruption were strongly linked to loneliness, from where different relations emerged to other depressive symptoms. Amongst others, loneliness had a stronger connection to perceiving oneself as a failure in separated compared to widowed individuals. Conversely, loneliness had a stronger connection to getting going in widowed individuals. LIMITATIONS: Analyses are based on cross-sectional between-subjects data, and conclusions regarding dynamic processes on the within-subjects level remain putative. Further, some of the estimated parameters in the network exhibited overlapping confidence intervals and their order needs to be interpreted with care. Replications should thus aim for studies with multiple time points and larger samples. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study add to a growing body of literature indicating that depressive symptom patterns depend on contextual factors. If replicated on the within-subjects level, such findings have implications for setting up patient-tailored treatment approaches in dependence of contextual factors.

No pain, no gain: cross-lagged analyses of posttraumatic growth and anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress and prolonged grief symptoms after loss.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Major negative life-events including bereavement can precipitate perceived positive life-changes, termed posttraumatic growth (PTG). While traditionally considered an adaptive phenomenon, it has been suggested that PTG represents a maladaptive coping response similar to cognitive avoidance. To clarify the function of PTG, it is crucial to establish concurrent and longitudinal associations of PTG with post-event mental health problems. Yet, longitudinal studies on this topic are scarce. The present study fills this gap in knowledge. DESIGN: A two-wave longitudinal survey was conducted. METHODS: Four-hundred and twelve bereaved adults (87.6% women) filled out scales assessing PTG and symptoms of depression, anxiety, prolonged grief, and posttraumatic stress at baseline and 6 months later. RESULTS: The baseline concurrent relationships between all symptom levels and PTG were curvilinear (inverted U-shape). Cross-lagged analyses demonstrated that symptom levels did not predict levels of PTG 6 months later, or vice versa. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest PTG after loss has no substantive negative or positive effects on mental health. Development of specific treatments to increase PTG after bereavement therefore appears premature.

Community-based counseling reaches and helps bereaved people living in low-income households.

OBJECTIVE: Poverty is related to increased grief-related mental health problems, leading some to suggest bereavement counseling should be tailored to income. However, information about accessibility and effectiveness of such counseling programs serving low-income households is scarce. This longitudinal study therefore investigated the association between poverty and complicated grief (CG), and the effectiveness of a community-based bereavement counseling program in serving low-income households. METHODS: Two hundred eighty-eight participants (75% female) were enrolled. Loss-related and demographic variables were assessed at baseline. Regression analyses were used to investigate household income as a predictor of CG, and examine bereavement counseling effectiveness by comparing CG symptom change across three household income categories across three time-points: baseline (T1), T1 + 12 months (T2), and T1 + 18 months (T3). RESULTS: Of all participants, 35.8% reported below poverty-threshold income, twice the general population's rate. Multiple regression analysis indicated poverty-threshold income was a predictor of CG symptoms over and above demographic and loss-related characteristics. Three-way interaction analysis detected a significant treatment effect for study condition across time, but no differences in treatment effects across income. CONCLUSION: Lower household income was associated with higher CG symptoms. Since income did not predict differential treatment response, community-based bereavement counseling appeared no less efficacious for members of low-income households. Clinical or methodological significance of this article: While previous research has indicated low income may be a risk factor for mental health problems after bereavement, and it has therefore been suggested bereavement counseling should be tailored to income, no study to date has investigated the need for such tailoring. This controlled, longitudinal treatment study fills this gap in knowledge. Main findings are that low income is a key predictor of complicated grief symptoms. The study also shows that the effectiveness of one-to-one bereavement counseling does not appear to differ according to income level.

Effectiveness of bereavement counselling through a community-based organization: A naturalistic, controlled trial.

This controlled, longitudinal investigation tested the effectiveness of a bereavement counselling model for adults on reducing complicated grief (CG) symptoms. Participants (N = 344; 79% female; mean age: 49.3 years) were adult residents of Scotland who were bereaved of a close relation or partner, experiencing elevated levels of CG, and/or risks of developing CG. It was hypothesized that participants who received intervention would experience a greater decline in CG levels immediately following the intervention compared to the control participants, but the difference would diminish at follow-up (due to relapse). Data were collected via postal questionnaire at 3 time points: baseline (T), post-intervention (T + 12 months), and follow-up (T + 18 months). CG, post-traumatic stress, and general psychological distress were assessed at all time points. Multilevel analyses controlling for relevant covariates were conducted to examine group differences in symptom levels over time. A stepwise, serial gatekeeping procedure was used to correct for multiple hypothesis testing. A main finding was that, contrary to expectations, counselling intervention and control group participants experienced a similar reduction in CG symptoms at postmeasure. However, intervention participants demonstrated a greater reduction in symptom levels at follow-up (M = 53.64; d = .33) compared to the control group (M = 62.00). Results suggest community-based bereavement counselling may have long-term beneficial effects. Further longitudinal treatment effect investigations with extensive study intervals are needed.

Meaning and coping orientation of bereaved parents: Individual and dyadic processes.

The present study aimed to examine whether bereaved parents "meaning-made"-defined as results of attempts to reduce discrepancies between the meaning assigned to the death of the child and self and world-views-was influenced by their own and their partner's coping orientations. Coping orientations were conceptualized within the Dual Process Model, which entails loss coping orientation (LO; focus on the loss itself), restoration coping orientations (RO; focus on stressors that come about as an indirect consequence of the bereavement), and a flexible oscillation between both coping orientations. The sample consisted of 227 couples identified through obituary notices in local and national newspapers, who provided data at 6, 13, and 20 months after the death of their child. At all three points of measurement, both partners independently completed the Dual Coping Inventory (DCI) and a scale developed by the authors about meaning-made from the loss. Data were analyzed using a multi-level Actor-Partner Interdependence Model. Results show that the combination of parents' own LO and RO (operationalized through the interaction effect between LO and RO) have a positive effect in parents' meaning-made. Partners' LO have a negative effect in parents' meaning-made. These results highlight the importance of, in the context of parental bereavement, being flexible by using both coping orientations, and of acknowledging the interdependence between partners, namely, the interpersonal process by which partner's coping affect one's meaning-made.

Does worry affect adjustment to bereavement? A longitudinal investigation.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Repetitive thought is a trans-diagnostic risk-factor for development of psychopathology. Research on repetitive thought in bereaved individuals has focused primarily on clarifying the role of rumination, repetitive thinking about past negative events and/or negative emotions. While detrimental effects of rumination have been demonstrated following bereavement, surprisingly few studies have aimed to clarify the role of worry, repetitive thinking about potential future negative events, in adjustment to loss. This study sought to fill this gap in knowledge. METHODS/DESIGN: One hundred eighty-three bereaved individuals (85.3% women) filled out questionnaires on sociodemographic and loss-related characteristics, worry, and symptom measures of depression, anxiety, and prolonged grief. After six months, 155 participants completed worry and symptom measures again. Using multiple regression analyses, concurrent and longitudinal associations between loss-related variables, worry, and symptoms of psychopathology were examined. RESULTS: Main results were that worry was strongly positively associated with symptoms of anxiety, depression and prolonged grief concurrently and also predicted higher levels of anxiety, depression and prolonged grief longitudinally. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that worry influences adjustment to bereavement negatively and may be a potential target in grief therapy, especially when aiming to reduce anxiety.

Initial Validation of a Comprehensive Assessment Instrument for Bereavement-Related Grief Symptoms and Risk of Complications: The Indicator of Bereavement Adaptation-Cruse Scotland (IBACS).

OBJECTIVE: This study assessed the validity of the Indicator of Bereavement Adaptation Cruse Scotland (IBACS). Designed for use in clinical and non-clinical settings, the IBACS measures severity of grief symptoms and risk of developing complications. METHOD: N = 196 (44 male, 152 female) help-seeking, bereaved Scottish adults participated at two timepoints: T1 (baseline) and T2 (after 18 months). Four validated assessment instruments were administered: CORE-R, ICG-R, IES-R, SCL-90-R. Discriminative ability was assessed using ROC curve analysis. Concurrent validity was tested through correlation analysis at T1. Predictive validity was assessed using correlation analyses and ROC curve analysis. Optimal IBACS cutoff values were obtained by calculating a maximal Youden index J in ROC curve analysis. Clinical implications were compared across instruments. RESULTS: ROC curve analysis results (AUC = .84, p < .01, 95% CI between .77 and .90) indicated the IBACS is a good diagnostic instrument for assessing complicated grief. Positive correlations (p < .01, 2-tailed) with all four instruments at T1 demonstrated the IBACS' concurrent validity, strongest with complicated grief measures (r = .82). Predictive validity was shown to be fair in T2 ROC curve analysis results (n = 67, AUC = .78, 95% CI between .65 and .92; p < .01). Predictive validity was also supported by stable positive correlations between IBACS and other instruments at T2. Clinical indications were found not to differ across instruments. CONCLUSIONS: The IBACS offers effective grief symptom and risk assessment for use by non-clinicians. Indications are sufficient to support intake assessment for a stepped model of bereavement intervention.

Internet-Based Exposure and Behavioral Activation for Complicated Grief and Rumination: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

This study examined the effectiveness and feasibility of therapist-guided Internet-delivered exposure (EX) and behavioral activation (BA) for complicated grief and rumination. Forty-seven bereaved individuals with elevated levels of complicated grief and grief rumination were randomly assigned to three conditions: EX (N=18), BA (N=17), or a waiting-list (N=12). Treatment groups received 6 homework assignments over 6 to 8weeks. Intention-to-treat analyses showed that EX reduced complicated grief, posttraumatic stress, depression, grief rumination, and brooding levels relative to the control group at posttreatment (d=0.7-1.2). BA lowered complicated grief, posttraumatic stress, and grief rumination levels at posttreatment (d=0.8-0.9). At 3-month follow-up, effects of EX were maintained on complicated grief and grief rumination (d=0.6-1.2), and for BA on complicated grief, posttraumatic stress, and grief rumination (d=0.8-0.9). EX reduced depression more strongly than BA (d=0.6). Completers analyses corroborated results for EX, and partially those for BA, but no group differences were detected. BA suffered from high dropout (59%), relative to EX (33%) and the waiting-list (17%). Feasibility appeared higher for EX than BA. Results supported potential applicability of online exposure but not behavioral activation to decrease complicated grief and rumination.

Rumination and implicit avoidance following bereavement: an approach avoidance task investigation.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Rumination, a risk factor in adjustment to bereavement, has often been considered a confrontation process. However, building on research on worry in generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and rumination in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), researchers recently developed the Rumination as Avoidance Hypothesis (RAH), which states that rumination after bereavement serves to avoid the reality of the loss. In the present study, RAH was tested by investigating if rumination is associated with implicit loss avoidance. METHODS: An Approach Avoidance Task (AAT) was used to assess automatic behavior tendencies. Using a joystick, 71 persons who recently lost a first-degree relative (90.1% women), pulled stimuli toward themselves or pushed them away from themselves. Stimuli represented the loss (picture deceased + loss word), were loss-related but ambiguous (picture deceased + neutral word; picture stranger + loss word), or were non-loss-related (picture stranger + neutral word; puzzle picture + X's). RESULTS: Participants who ruminated more were relatively faster in pushing loss stimuli away from themselves and slower in pulling loss stimuli towards themselves, implying more rumination was associated with stronger implicit loss avoidance. Effects were maintained after controlling for depressive or post-traumatic stress symptom levels, but not when controlling for prolonged grief symptom levels. LIMITATIONS: Conjugally bereaved women were overrepresented in the sample, which limits generalizability of results. The study was correlational, precluding causal inferences. CONCLUSIONS: In line with RAH, rumination was positively associated with loss avoidance. This may indicate that the application of exposure-based techniques can reduce rumination and loss-related psychopathology.

Is rumination after bereavement linked with loss avoidance? Evidence from eye-tracking.

Rumination is a risk factor in adjustment to bereavement. It is associated with and predicts psychopathology after loss. Yet, the function of rumination in bereavement remains unclear. In the past, researchers often assumed rumination to be a maladaptive confrontation process. However, based on cognitive avoidance theories of worry in generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) and rumination after post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), others have suggested that rumination may serve to avoid painful aspects of the loss, thereby contributing to complicated grief. To examine if rumination is linked with loss avoidance, an eye-tracking study was conducted with 54 bereaved individuals (27 high and 27 low ruminators). On 24 trials, participants looked for 10 seconds at a picture of the deceased and a picture of a stranger, randomly combined with negative, neutral or loss-related words. High ruminators were expected to show initial vigilance followed by subsequent disengagement for loss stimuli (i.e., picture deceased with a loss word) in the first 1500 ms. Additionally, we expected high ruminators to avoid these loss stimuli and to show attentional preference for non-loss-related negative stimuli (i.e., picture stranger with a negative word) on longer exposure durations (1500-10000 ms). Contrary to expectations, we found no evidence for an effect of rumination on vigilance and disengagement of loss stimuli in the first 1500 ms. However, in the 1500-10000 ms interval, high ruminators showed shorter gaze times for loss stimuli and longer gaze times for negative (and neutral) non-loss-related stimuli, even when controlling for depression and complicated grief symptom levels. Effects of rumination on average fixation times mirrored these findings. This suggests that rumination and loss avoidance are closely associated. A potential clinical implication is that rumination and grief complications after bereavement may be reduced through the use of exposure and acceptance-based therapeutic techniques.

Avoidance processes mediate the relationship between rumination and symptoms of complicated grief and depression following loss.

Ruminative coping has been associated with negative outcomes in bereavement. Rather than assuming it to be a problematic confrontation process, researchers have recently suggested rumination to be maladaptive through its links with avoidance processes. The main aim of this study was to examine, for the first time, whether the relationship between ruminative coping and symptoms of complicated grief and depression is mediated by avoidance processes (suppression, memory/experiential avoidance, behavioral avoidance, loss-reality avoidance). A sample of 282 adults (88% female, 12% male), bereaved on average 18 months previously, filled out three questionnaires at 6-month intervals. We assessed symptom levels, grief rumination, and trait rumination at baseline; avoidance processes after 6 months; and symptom levels after 12 months. When controlling for initial symptom levels, experiential avoidance mediated the link between grief rumination and complicated grief, and experiential avoidance and behavioral avoidance mediated the link between grief rumination and depression. Post hoc analyses showed suppression may also mediate the link between grief rumination and symptoms of complicated grief, but not depression. Loss-reality avoidance was no significant mediator of these relationships. This study provides initial evidence that rumination during bereavement increases and perpetuates symptoms of psychopathology, because it is linked with specific avoidance processes. Bereaved individuals with problematic grief and (chronic) rumination may benefit from therapy focused on countering avoidance tendencies.

The impact of migratory separation from parents on the health of adolescents in the Philippines.

In the Philippines, as in several other low and middle-income countries in the world, it is usual for parents to leave the country to work abroad in order to improve the situation of their children who remain behind. However, stressful life events such as the separation from a parent are known to have a severe impact on physical and mental health of children. This study, conducted in 2008-2009, explored health consequences of migratory separation for remaining-behind adolescent children, comparing them with those whose parents remained at home. Participants were 205 high school students from the Philippines. It was found that adolescents with a parent abroad, particularly the mother, reported poorer physical health than those with both parents at home, while socioeconomic status did not have impact. The parent-abroad adolescents reported a high level of missing their parent(s) and felt emotionally lonelier than the parent-at-home group. Emotional loneliness and stress due to parental absence were associated with poorer health. Avoidant coping appeared to moderate the parental absence-health relationship. Paradoxically, it seems that, although many parents work abroad to improve the lot of their children, the latter suffer emotional stress and physical health detriments. While Lazarus and Folkman's (1984) cognitive stress model is generally applicable for migratory separation, cultural aspects need attention, both in theoretical implementation and interpretation. Limitations and implications are further discussed.

Continuing relationships with the deceased: disentangling bonds and grief.

Some studies of the relationship between continuing bonds and grief intensity have claimed that continuing bonds lead to poor adaptation to bereavement. However, operationalizations of continuing bonds and grief intensity appear to overlap conceptually. Thus, it is still unclear what character the connection between continuing bonds and grief bears and how strong the relationship is. Three studies are reported, 2 of which examine the perception of conceptual overlap between continuing bonds and grief intensity, and 1 that examines whether reducing this perceived conceptual overlap affects the association between continuing bonds and grief intensity. In the first 2 studies, extent of perception of conceptual overlap was established, and subscales for the bonds and grief measures were derived that could be considered less overlapping. In the third study, relationships between bonds, grief, and well-being were calculated for the original scales and those reduced on the basis of deleted perceived overlap. When conceptual overlap was reduced, the relationship between grief and continuing bonds was slightly lower but not significantly so, as happened to the relationship between bonds and well-being. By contrast, the link between grief intensity and well-being did not diminish after deleting the overlapping items. These patterns suggest that future research should continue to explore whether the association between continuing bonds and grief intensity is due to conceptual overlap.

Continuing bonds and grief: a prospective analysis.

Using data of 56 bereaved individuals, this study examined associations of various manifestations of continuing bonds, assessed at 7-12 months post-loss, with concurrent and prospective (9 months later) symptoms of grief and depression. Among other things it was found that, independent of initial symptom levels, manifestations of continuing bonds differed in their associations with subsequent grief and depression. That is, continuing bonds through recovering memories was a strong predictor of grief but not depression, whereas continuing bonds through the use of the deceased's possessions was a weak predictor of both grief and depression. In part, these findings contradict earlier prospective findings.

Grief work, disclosure and counseling: do they help the bereaved?

Bereavement is associated with increased risk of morbidity and mortality. How to protect the bereaved against extreme suffering and lasting health impairment remains a central research issue. It has been widely accepted that to adjust, the bereaved have to confront and express intense emotions accompanying their loss. It has further been assumed that others assist in this process, and that intervention programs are effective. To assess validity of these assumptions, this article reviews research on the impact of expressing and sharing emotions across four research domains (social support; emotional disclosure; experimentally induced emotional disclosure; and grief intervention). In none of these areas is there evidence that emotional disclosure facilitates adjustment to loss in normal bereavement. Implications of these findings are discussed.